History of the Quiché Maya - Popol Vuh

History of the Quichà © Maya - Popol Vuh The Popol Vuh (Council Book or Council Papers) is the most important sacred book of the Quichà ©; (or Kiche) Maya of the Guatemalan Highlands. The Popol Vuh is an important text for understanding Late Postclassic and Early Colonial Maya religion, myth, and history, but also because it also offers interesting glimpses into Classic Period beliefs. History of the Text The surviving text of the Popol Vuh was not written in Mayan hieroglyphics, but rather is a transliteration into European script written between 1554-1556 by someone said to have been a Quichà © nobleman. Between 1701-1703, the Spanish friar Francisco Ximenez found that version where he was stationed in Chichicastenango, copied it and translated the document into Spanish. Ximenez translation is currently stored in the Newberry Library of Chicago. There are numerous versions of the Popol Vuh in translations in various languages: the best known in English is that of Mayanist Dennis Tedlock, originally published in 1985; Low et al. (1992) compared the various English versions available in 1992 and remarked that Tedlock immersed himself in the Mayan point of view as much as he could, but by and largely picked prose rather than the poetry of the original. The Content of the Popol Vuh Now it still ripples, now it still murmurs, ripples, it still sighs, still hums and is empty under the sky (from Tedlocks 3rd edition, 1996, describing the primordial world before creation) The Popol Vuh is a narrative of the cosmogony, history, and traditions of the Kiche Maya before the Spanish conquest in 1541. That narrative is presented in three parts. The first part talks about the creation of the world and its first inhabitants; the second, probably the most famous, narrates the story of the Hero Twins, a couple of semi-gods; and the third part is the story of the Quichà © noble family dynasties. Creation Myth According to the Popol Vuh myth, at the beginning of the world, there were only the two creator gods: Gucumatz and Tepeu. These gods decided to create earth out of the primordial sea. Once the earth was created, the gods populated it with animals, but they soon realized that animals were unable to speak and therefore could not worship them. For this reason, the gods created humans and had the animals role relegated to food for humans. This generation of humans was made out of mud, and so were weak and were soon destroyed. As a third attempt, the gods created men from wood and women from reeds. These people populated the world and procreated, but they soon forgot their gods and were punished with a flood. The few who survived were transformed into monkeys. Finally, the gods decided to mold mankind from maize. This generation, which includes the present human race, is able to worship and nourish the gods. In the narration of the Popol Vuh, the creation of the people of corn is preceded by the story of the Hero Twins. The Hero Twins Story The Hero Twins, Hunahpu, and Xbalanque were the sons of Hun Hunahpu and an underworld goddess named Xquic. According to the myth, Hun Hunahpu and his twin brother Vucub Hunahpu were convinced by the lords of the underworld to play a ball game with them. They were defeated and sacrificed, and the head of Hun Hunahpu was placed on a gourd tree. Xquic escaped from the underworld and was impregnated by the blood dripping from Hun Hunahpu’s head and gave birth to the second generation of hero twins, Hunahpu and Xbalanque. Hunahpu and Xbalanque lived on the earth with their grandmother, the mother of the first Hero Twins, and became great ballplayers. One day, as had happened to their father, they were invited to play a ball game with the Lords of Xibalba, the underworld, but unlike their father, they were not defeated and stood all the tests and tricks posted by the underworld gods. With a final trick, they managed to kill the Xibalba lords and to revive their father and uncle. Hunahpu and Xbalanque then reached the sky where they became the sun and moon, whereas Hun Hunahpu became the god of corn, who emerges every year  from the earth to give life to the people. The Origins of the Quichà © Dynasties The final part of the Popol Vuh narrates the story of the first people created from corn by the ancestral couple, Gucumatz and Tepeu. Among these were the founders of the Quichà © noble dynasties. They were able to praise the gods and wandered the world until they reached a mythical place where they could receive the gods into sacred bundles and take them home. The book closes with the list of the Quichà © lineages up until the 16th century. How Old is the Popol Vuh? Although early scholars believed that the living Maya had no recollection of the Popol Vuh, some groups retain considerable knowledge of the stories, and new data have led most Mayanists to accept that some form of the Popol Vuh has been central to the Maya religion at least since the Maya Late Classic Period. Some scholars such as Prudence Rice have argued for a much older date. Elements of the narrative in the Popol Vuh argues Rice, appear to predate the late Archaic separation of language families and calendars. Further, the tale of the one-legged ophidian supernatural who is associated with rain, lightning, life, and creation is associated with Maya kings and dynastic legitimacy throughout their history. Updated by  K. Kris Hirst Sources Dictionary of Archaeology.Carlsen RS, and Prechtel M. 1991. The Flowering of the Dead: An Interpretation of Highland Maya Culture. Man 26(1):23-42.Knapp BL. 1997. The Popol Vuh: Primordial Mother Participates in the Creation. Confluencia 12(2):31-48.Low D, Morley S, Goetz D, Recinos A, xe, Edmonson M, and Tedlock D. 1992. A Comparison of English translations of a Mayan text, the Popol Vuh. Studies in American Indian Literatures 4(2/3):12-34.Miller ME, and Taube K. 1997. An Illustrated Dictionary of The Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya. London: Thames and Hudson.Paulinyi Z. 2014. The butterfly bird god and his myth at Teotihuacan.  Ancient Mesoamerica 25(01):29-48.Rice PM. 2012. Continuities in Maya political rhetoric: Kawiils, katuns, and kennings.  Ancient Mesoamerica 23(01):103-114.Sharer RJ. 2006. The Ancient Maya. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press.Tedlock D. 1982. Reading the Popol Vuh over the shoulder of a diviner and finding out whats so funny. Conjunctions 3:176-185. Tedlock D. 1996. The Popol Vuh: Definitive Edition of the Maya Book of the Dawn of Life and the Glories of Gods and Kings. New York: Touchstone.Woodruff JM. 2011. Ma(r)king Popol Vuh.  Romance Notes 51(1):97-106.

Oration - Definition and Examples

Oration s An oration is a  speech delivered in a formal and dignified manner.  A skilled public speaker is known as an orator. The art of delivering speeches is called oratory. In classical rhetoric, notes  George A. Kennedy, orations were classified into a number of formal genres, each with a technical name and certain conventions of structure and content (Classical Rhetoric and Its Christian and Secular Tradition, 1999). The primary categories of orations in  classical rhetoric were  deliberative  (or political),  judicial  (or forensic), and  epideictic  (or ceremonial).   The term oration sometimes carries a negative connotation: any impassioned, pompous, or long-winded speech (Oxford English Dictionary). EtymologyFrom the Latin, plead, speak, pray Observations Clark Mills BrinkWhat, then, is an oration? An oration is an oral discourse on a worthy and dignified theme, adapted to the average hearer, and whose aim is to influence the will of that hearer. PlutarchIt is a thing of no great difficulty to raise objections against another mans oration, nay, it is a very easy matter; but to produce a better in its place is a work extremely troublesome. Paul Oskar KristellerIn classical antiquity, the oration was the very center of rhetorical theory and practice, though among the three types of speech- deliberative, judiciary, and epideictic- the last was to become the most important in the later centuries of antiquity. During the Middle Ages, the secular public speech and the political and social institutions supporting it disappeared more or less completely. Rhetorica Ad Herennium, c. 90 BCThe Introduction is the beginning of the discourse, and by it the hearers mind is prepared for attention. The Narration or Statement of Facts sets forth the events that have occurred or might have occurred. By means of the Division we make clear what matters are agreed upon and what are contested, and announce what points we intend to take up. Proof is the presentation of our arguments, together with their corroboration. Refutation is the destruction of our adversaries arguments. The Conclusion is the end of the discourse, formed in accordance with the principles of the Art. David Rosenwasser and Jill StephenIf you read or listen to (for example) political speeches, you will find that many of them follow this order. This is because the form of the classical oration is suited primarily to argument- to the kind of writing in which the writer makes a case for or against something and refutes opposing arguments. Don Paul Abbott[Throughout the Renaissance,] the oration remained fixed as the supreme form of discourse, just as it had been for the Romans. In the opinion of Walter Ong, the oration tyrannized over ideas of what expression as such- literary or other- was....It is no exaggeration to say that the rules of the classical oration were applied to every kind of discourse.

Determinism, Compatiblism, and Libertarianism Research Paper

Determinism, Compatiblism, and Libertarianism - Research Paper Example I will divide my paper into four main parts. Part one will be devoted to an analysis of determinism. I shall use Paul Holbach’s version of this position. In contrast to part one, part two will tackle the libertarian position. Here I shall use Roderick Chisholm’s version. And part three will discuss the compatibilist view on free will. In doing so, I shall use A. J. Ayer’s version. Finally, I will show the main strengths and weaknesses of each. I will conclude my paper by giving an explanation on why I think compatibilism is the most feasible and practical among all three. Determinism: Everything Has A Cause Determinism is the view that rests on the assumption that everything has a cause. â€Å"All doctrines of determinism imply that given the past and the laws of nature at any given time, there is only one possible future. Whatever happens is therefore inevitable† (Kane 285). What does this imply? It simply implies that â€Å"we could not have chosen othe rwise† (Feinberg and Shafer-Landau 410). To illustrate this position further, I will explore Paul Holbach’s version of hard-determinism. Holbach says that we are not free. But how does he argue for this position? The main claim of determinism is that â€Å"whatever happens is determined by prior events† (Sie 2). Holbach is a hard determinist. ... But if my action is determined by past events, then I'm unable to act otherwise. Therefore, I don’t ever act freely. One can argue that it is not the case that I don’t act freely for I have my own motives, choices and I am not restrained. However, Holbach refutes this on the basis of â€Å"the complexity of human conduct and the illusion of free agency† (Holbach 463). Holbach argues, we only think we are free because we cannot explain the phenomena, but in principle, we can explain everything by explaining its causes (463). For instance, if I can explain my actions through the laws of nature then we have no use for free will anymore. So if we discover the cause of a given phenomena, then it nullifies freedom. Therefore, we are not free. Contrary to determinism is the libertarian position. I shall discuss Chisholm’s version of libertarianism next. Libertarianism: some of our actions are free Libertarianism argues that some events that happen are not determi ned by prior events. In defending freewill, Chisholm suggests: We must not say that every event involved in the act is caused by some other event; and we must not say that the act is something that is not caused at all. The possibility that remains, therefore, is this: We should say that at least one of the events that are involved in the act is caused, not by any other events, but by something else instead. And this something else can only be the agent—the man (440). Given Chisholm’s suggestion, I can say that my action-A is free if and only if I am the cause of A and that I could have done another action-B other than A. If determinism is true, I could not have done B. But I could have done B because I am the cause of my actions. My decision to do A caused me to perform A,

Working Hypothesis Report Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Working Hypothesis Report - Assignment Example Listed below is the interest rate charged on a a) Based on the dataset, we conclude that the Mean of the sample is 48.18. Accepting the given population Mean of 50 and the standard deviation of 3, this sample is within .01 or is included within the 99% range of probability. b) Using a z-statistic is applicable due to the range of data that fall evenly above and below a given mean on a normal distribution. The z-statistic tests to see if the sample follows the expectation of the population. In this case, the sample complies with the population parameters, as the mean falls within 1.918 standard deviations of the population mean. A z-test is appropriate, because the population variance is known. If we did not have this information, then a t-test would be more appropriate. Given the fact that the sample contained an outlier of 55.8, one would expect that the sample is skewed based on that data point. This is true, because if we were to remove the outlier, the new sample mean would be 47.33 and the corresponding z-stat would be -2.67, giving a p-value of 0.0076. This result would lead us to accept Ha, since p-value Variance: This is the average of the sum of squares of the variation from the mean. In English, this means that you take the difference between each data item and subtract the mean. You then square each number. Total them together and divide by the number of data points minus the number of variables. You will see this as ∑(x-u)2 / (n-1) Data point is the average for your sample data, while mean is the population mean and std deviation is the std deviation for the population. You will normally be given these numbers for the population, so you are comparing your

Obesity as a Social and Medical Problem Essay Example for Free

Obesity as a Social and Medical Problem Essay Obesity has become an epidemic in our over indulgent North American society. In addition to body image issues, obesity causes significant health issues. Society often views the word obesity to be a disease when it is actually a sign of a disorder; genetic or environmental. The percentage of our population that is growing overweight is increasing every year, and can become a very serious issue if it is not dealt with more urgently. Problems relating to self-confidence, self-consciousness, and isolation can occur as a result. An enduring problem in today’s society, especially with children, has to deal with sociality. Public appearance is very important to us and when we don’t look good, or have a low self-esteem, it can lead to further issues; possibly fatal. Those with the â€Å"obese† label have to deal with social problems every single day. The fact they don’t look â€Å"normal† causes them to not fit in with the â€Å"regular crowd† and can lead to isolation issues. Being isolated from the majority of the population can lead to problems such as depression and later on, suicide. Another big influence on social problems relating to obesity is the media. Every day at some time, somewhere, we are watching TV, reading the newspaper, or searching the web. The media tends to give labels and meaning to words in which we get influenced on. The view that the media portrays to us is that if you are a certain weight, you are obese; and vice-versa. Another problem with the media is the amount of time our society spends on it. Time consumed on useless media takes away from time spent doing productive activities such as exercising. However, the corruption in social patterns relating to obesity isn’t the only problem. Another big factor stands on the medical side. Obesity is a risk in a number of prolonged diseases. Maintaining a healthy weight is critical in order to reduce the risk of those diseases and additionally, improve your overall health. Many children and youth have fewer opportunities to be physically active at school as physical education classes and time spent being physically active at school have been reduced. Being overweight or obese has many risks involved. Serious conditions such as a stroke, high blood pressure, and Type 2 diabetes, can occur as a result; just to name a few. Linked with health problems is a poor diet. Variations in our food environment have made it challenging to maintain a healthy weight. Society tends to want to eat more fast-food rather than cooking at home because it is cheaper and less time-consuming. We have become lazy when it comes to our diets. We don’t take into consideration the Food Guide and basically eat what we want, when we want. Obesity is also a major drain on the economy. The amount of money being spent on health care because of obesity-related diseases is astronomical. The Globe and Mail had an article headlined, â€Å"Obesity costs economy up to $7-billion a year†. By eating right and maintaining a healthy lifestyle, our society can cut down economic costs drastically. All we need to have is some discipline, the proper diet, and exercise. Numerous children today are spending less time exercising and more time in front of the TV, computer, or video-game console. Even worse, some schools have banned the use of balls used at recess. An article in the Toronto Star explained why such a peculiar ban took place at Earl Beatty Public School, â€Å"The letter stated that there have been a â€Å"few serious incidents† in which staff and students have been hit, or come close to being struck, by flying balls. Not only are we lacking in exercise, the catalyst for running around at recess has now been taken away for some. This issue is going to further decrease the amount of physical activity kids partake in, and increase the possibilities of obesity. Commuting to and from work also contributes to obesity when you consider that in order to get by, mo st families need to have at least two incomes. People often have to commute long distances to jobs, and with the minimal time for meal preparation, fast foods become a number one option. Furthermore, having supermarkets, as well as other grocery stores open all night, more money is being spent on expensive, half-prepared meals. Children need to have a healthy example with their parents being physically active and eating healthy. Preventing children from becoming overweight means adapting to the way your family eats and exercises. Many believe that it is the parents fault when it comes to child obesity, and they’re correct. Children don’t have the discipline to eat â€Å"healthy† foods and aren’t capable of preparing home-made meals. It is the parent’s job to influence and lead the way for our youth. If parents set a better example health-wise for their children, it is highly doubtful that the percentage of obesity would be even remotely close to where it is now. Managing and preventing obesity can lead to many societal benefits. Having healthy, positive-minded people in our cities is always encouraging. Managing obesity can lessen the stress that occurs at work, as well as create a friendlier environment. Having a good work environment has shown to raise productivity, therefore creating better capital. Another optimistic result from obesity management in society is the discipline factor. If those that are overweight can overcome a huge default in their life, by working hard and staying focused, it will then translate into other aspects of their day-to-day lives. Our society will become that of a disciplined one, therefore work will become more productive because there is better focus on the tasks at hand; furthermore, children in school will become more confident because of how hard they worked as well as their new self-image. Overall, if our world can manage and prevent obesity, living can ultimately consist more of positive vibes and less of anxiety. In conclusion, it is clear we have a serious issue with obesity that impacts many aspects of people’s lives. It is an austere condition that doesn’t get monitored with enough concern. Possibilities such as Type 2 diabetes and high blood pressure are the two leading causes from being overweight. Medical, as well as social research can help people further comprehend that weight and obesity issues are vastly social, not individual. We have to start working together on fighting obesity. We are a lazy society and we tend to make things harder than they really are. If society works together to help those in need by giving them the courage and confidence needed to make a personal change, this unnecessary burden called obesity can be upheld. It all starts with the right diet as well as exercise and a strong commitment. As little as ten minutes a day on the bike can improve one’s health. The ball is in our court, and stronger action needs to be taken. We need to start now because the benefits to individuals as well as society are well worth the effort.

Importance of Life Revealed in Erich Maria Remarques All Quiet on the

Importance of Life Revealed in Erich Maria Remarque's All Quiet on the Western Front       Erich Maria Remarque's classic war novel, All Quiet on the Western Front, deals with the many ways in which World War I affected people's lives, both the lives of soldiers on the front lines and the lives of people on the homefront. One of the most profound effects the war had was the way it made the soldiers see human life. Constant killing and death became a part of a soldier's daily life, and soldiers fighting on all sides of the war became accustomed to it. The atrocities and frequent deaths that the soldiers dealt with desensitized them to the reality of the vast quantities of people dying daily. The title character of the novel, Paul Bà ¤umer, and his friends experience the devaluation of human life firsthand, and from these experiences they become stronger and learn to live as if every day were their last.    The killing and death of WW I depicted in the novel desensitizes Bà ¤umer to the reality that death is now a regular and driving force in his life, and that each human life is no longer sacred and precious. Bà ¤umer feels great emotion and sadness when one of his childhood friends, Kemmerich, dies early in the war. Bà ¤umer expresses his emotional despair after Kemmerich's death, stating, "I become faint, all at once I cannot do any more. I won't revile any more, it is senseless, I could drop down and never rise up again" (Remarque 32). Because this is one of the first deaths that Bà ¤umer witnesses personally and because Bà ¤umer and Kemmerich were childhood friends, the emotional impact is even greater. However, not all the deaths of his comrades effect him in such a powerful manner. The fighting gets to a point at which Bà ¤umer... ... him. Death, which he once agonized over, is now a daily occurrence and seems commonplace to him. Life, which he once took for granted, is now cherished beyond belief, and holding on to it becomes his greatest preoccupation. These effects are not limited only to Paul Bà ¤umer, but extend to all the millions of people that are involved, directly or indirectly, in the war. WW I has far-reaching impact. It not only touches those in combat on the front lines, but also those who support the soldiers and help to make munitions and supplies on the homefront. Bà ¤umer, and the millions of other people involved in WW I, learn the difficult lesson that the most trying experiences in life, or in this case death, are what make us the strongest and what drive us to survive. Works Cited Remarque, Erich Maria. All Quiet on the Western Front. New York: Balantine Books, 1928.

Aquinas and Dante: Perfecting Human Reason

Julia Caldwell Professor Albrecht Development of Western Civilization 2, February, 2013 Aquinas and Dante: Perfecting Human Reason Aquinas and Dante: Perfecting Human Reason Despite the fact that Dante’s reader doesn’t encounter St. Thomas Aquinas within the Comedia until Paradise, the beliefs and teachings of Aquinas are woven throughout the entirety of the famous poem. St. Thomas Aquinas’s cosmology and theology are used as the foundation for Dante’s Comedia, and for this reason it is no surprise that the experiences of the Pilgrim symbolically reflect many of Aquinas’s teachings.The Pilgrim’s experiences on his journey through the afterlife reflect what Aquinas called the, â€Å"two-fold truth concerning the divine being, one to which the inquiry of reason can reach, the other which surpasses the whole ability of human reason† (Summa Contra Gentiles, Handout I, 4). Dante also illustrates Aquinas’s conclusion that man’s reason tends toward the source of ultimate true while mans will tends toward the ultimate good. The reader is able to see how Dante’s will and reason search for, and ultimately attain, fulfillment in the vision of the Divine Essence.Both Aquinas and Dante emphasize the necessary union between human reason and divine faith as a means of attaining this fulfillment. As the instiller of these inclinations, only God Himself can satisfy them. Aquinas demonstrates this idea through his explanation of the natural and the divine law as they pertain to the Eternal law. Dante demonstrates this idea through the Pilgrim’s interactions with his guides and the culmination of his ascension in Paradise. Just as with body and soul, matter and form, there is a harmonious relationship between reason and faith; yet the agents within these partnerships are not equal.Both Dante and Aquinas acknowledge that human reason can assist the individual in understanding God and coinciding oneâ€℠¢s will with His will, but they both conclude that this secular-based reasoning is subjugated by and therefore must be perfected by theology. In Dante’s Virgil the reader finds human reason personified. Being the shade of a renowned and wise philosopher, Virgil is a perfect candidate to guide the Pilgrim through hell and purgatory. In his own lifetime Virgil lived as a pious man and therefore attained the imperfect Earthly happiness that can be acquired through natural powers.However, as Aquinas states, â€Å"every knowledge that is according to the mode of created substance, falls short of the vision of the Divine Essence,† therefore Virgil is unable to reach fulfillment since he cannot ascend to Paradise (Summa Theologiae, Handout II, 12). Instead, like many of his pagan contemporaries, Virgil is doomed to spend eternity in the underworld’s Limbo. He will forever yearn to know the ultimate happiness and the ultimate truth that are only found in God. As Virgil puts it himself, â€Å"In this alone we suffer: cut off from hope, we live in desire† (Inferno, 20).Dante provides Virgil as a means of illustrating the incompleteness of human reason, whereby observing Aquinas’s warning. When describing the home of philosophers within Limbo Dante writes, â€Å"we reached a place spread out and luminous† (Inferno 22). It is fitting that this realm be characterized by light because as Aquinas states, â€Å"[natural reason] is nothing else than an imprint on us of the Divine light† (Summa Theologiae, Handout II, 13). The knowledge possessed by the philosophers comes from God Himself, or the Eternal Law.Having never embraced the faith of God through the implementation of the theological virtues, however, Virgil is an imperfect soul. Much like Virgil, human reason is guided by the light of the Eternal Law, but is unperfected without the divine law. It is this very imperfection of Virgil’s nature that makes him the perf ect guide for the initial stages of Dante’s journey. In Virgil Dante finds a guide capable of explaining and illuminating the conceptual and rational worlds of Hell and Purgatory, but also in Virgil Dante is able to see the limits of human reason without the theological virtues.With Virgil as his guide, the Pilgrim is â€Å"guided by the light of natural reason† (Summa Contra Gentiles, Handout I, 2). Along his journey, however, Virgil comes to realize that his wise guide is not all-powerful. When the pair arrives at the gates of Dis in Canto 8, the Furies slam the gates of the city shut despite Virgil’s pleas. It is only when a holy messenger from Paradise arrives that the Furies surrender to God’s will and allow Dante and Virgil to enter. Taking this event metaphorically, reason is unable to go on further without grace. As the pair travel within the realm of Purgatory it becomes clear that Dante’s uestions are becoming more of a challenge for Virg il. When Virgil is trying to explain why his shade casts no shadow, his reasoning can only goes as far as to say that his condition is, â€Å"willed by that Power which wills its secret not to be revealed† (Purgatory 207). Dante goes on to describe Virgil’s countenance as having â€Å"anguished thoughts† (Purgatory 207). Virgil’s struggle to explain the dynamics of the afterlife as the pair comes closer to Paradise reflects Aquinas’s conclusion that â€Å"[the] human intellect is not able to reach a comprehension of the divine substance through its natural power† (Summa Contra Gentiles, Handout I, 3).Furthermore this instance exemplifies Aquinas’s conclusion that human reason is able to recognize effects but is unable to explain the Ultimate Cause of these effects without faith (Summa Contra Gentiles, Handout I, 9). Virgil can see that he has no shadow, but he cannot explain the source of the original cause. Since Virgil never believe d in the faith of the divine mysteries while he was still on Earth, his intellect is unable to grasp an understanding of God’s will. In conclusion, because Virgil doesn’t use faith to perfect his reason, his own will can never be aligned with the will of his Creator.Virgil specifically alludes to the fault in his faith when he distinguishes between pagan and Christian prayer. He admits that his own prayers, along with the prayers of all pagans, â€Å"had no access to God† (Purgatory, 225). Unlike pagan prayers, which according to Virgil in the Aeneid are powerless in a universe predestined by the Fates, Christian prayers are an embodiment of human participation with the true divine. By taking part in prayer, the individual takes part in the theological virtues that â€Å"are infused by God alone† and â€Å"direct us aright to God† (Summa Theologiae, Handout II, 11).It is only through the participation in these theological virtues that an individual can be guided toward God Himself. These virtues are the perfecting agents by which the human will and intellect are pushed toward their â€Å"last act† (Summa Theologiae, Handout II, 8). This last act is the attainment of happiness in the vision of the Divine Essence. Rather than try to explain concepts beyond what his reason can grapple with, Virgil asks his pupil to wait for Beatrice to answer his questions on this subject: â€Å"Do not try to resolve so deep a doubt; wait until she shall make it clearer—she, he light between truth and intelligence† (Purgatory 225). In this statement Virgil admits that Beatrice, as â€Å"the light†, is more capable of illuminating matters of the divine than the poet. Once the pair reaches the top of mount Purgatory, Virgil tells his young friend, â€Å"you’ve reached the place where my discernment now has reached its end† (Purgatory 351). Virgil has taken the Pilgrim as far as reason can dictate; now Dant e requires a guide of theological proportions to guide him in a realm where reason is blinded.When Dante reaches the top of Mount Purgatory, he has been cleansed of every perversion of the will. The feelings of admiration he felt for Virgil have been replaced by the intense love he feels for his new guide, Beatrice. He now desires conceptual knowledge less and instead begins to explore understanding through his senses. This tradeoff is necessary in this new realm where observations may not be fitting to human concepts. This necessity is made clear when Beatrice beings to explain to Dante the divinely ordained distribution of power amongst the stars (Paradise Canto I).Before she lays out the complicated plan she warns Dante, â€Å"even when the senses guide, reason’s wingspan can sometimes be short† (Paradise 399). This is a reminder to Dante that his experiences in Paradise will not be as easily digested and picked apart as his experiences in Hell and Purgatory. In the former realms, human reason could essentially provide explanations without needing the aid of theology. This is also a cue to Dante’s readers that they are not mentally capable of understanding the phenomena he is about to experience, so they must rely on faith.In a larger context, humanity must rely on its faith in God to have any earthly understanding of what heaven is. Donning red, white, and green, Beatrice symbolically represents the theological virtues, including faith. Dante initially relies on the eyes of Beatrice to reflect the heavenly bodies, since the brightness of Paradise overwhelms his eyes (Paradise 393). This can be metaphorically applied to the idea that humans must rely on the assistance of God, through belief and participation in the theological virtues, to begin to understand God’s mysteries.In the same way Dante initially owes his sight of Paradise to the eyes of Beatrice, humanity owes perfection of its reason to the theological virtues. As Aqui nas chimes, â€Å"the theological virtues direct man to supernatural happiness† (Summa Theologiae, Handout II, 11). Through keeping faith in the mysteries while on Earth, a soul will be ready to behold them in the afterlife. In this way, both Dante and Aquinas emphasize how important it is for Christians to believe in the mysteries of the divine even when they transcend human reason.Even having beheld the beauty of the Divine himself, Dante is unable to relate the experience in words to his readers. Though he has seen the mysteries of God with his own eyes, the Divine Essence’s unparalleled nature transcends human explanation and human understanding. In this way Dante illustrates Aquinas’s conclusion that while on Earth we must rely on what we believe not what we actually see and understand. Aquinas says, â€Å"although human reason cannot grasp fully the truths that are yet above it†¦if it somehow holds these truths by faith, it acquires great perfection for itself† (Summa Contra Gentiles, Handout I, 6).In this way Aquinas clarifies the relationship between faith and reason. Without faith, reason remains unperfected and vulnerable to falsehoods. With faith, however, reason aligns itself with truth and thus aligns itself with the will of God. Individuals who perfect reason with faith are guided along the path towards salvation, just as Dante experiences. Following this path, one is able to arrive at the end toward which all humanity tends, prepared and deserving of the vision of the Divine Essence. It is only at this moment that the individual achieves the desires of both reason and will: truth and happiness.

My Interpretation of Islamic Mysticism

Raised as a Christian, I were taught by my family to trust the conscience were Jesus would speak to me.   The intuition and the inner voice are other names used by people to describe the conscience.   All the same, the use of the conscience to guide oneself through life’s challenges as well as simple day to day affairs is based on the fact that Jesus were the Spirit of the Lord and the same Spirit resides in each one of us.   Bearing this in mind, none of us may truly go wrong.   Hence, I have never really believed in strict rules of the Lord to guide me to heaven.   Rather, I trust in the Spirit of the Lord or Jesus Christ who lives in me to guide me in all situations. Imam Birgivi’s mysticism, in addition to the religions of others, have never appealed to me for the reason that they teach strict rules to their followers.   Nevertheless, Birgivi’s chapter, â€Å"On Righteousness,† quotes many verses of the Qur’an which I appreciate just as much as I love the words of Jesus in the Gospels.   Divine words about the Garden are truly a message of hope for all people suffering from the stress of worldly existence.   Birgivi also writes extensively on fear of the Lord. Jesus Christ spoke of this fear as well, although the love of God must be balanced with fear in our emotional lives.   In other words, we cannot excessively fear and love the Lord at the same time.   Moreover, fear of the Lord is essential, especially for those who turn into murderers or terrorists.   Although I believe in freedom that the Spirit of the Lord entitles me to feel – I also believe that fear of the Lord should be an important part of our belief systems, seeing that this fear could keep people from destroying their own lives as well as the lives of others. Birgivi’s chapter, â€Å"On Identifying Evil,† once again leads me to turn to the Sprit of Jesus Christ within me.   Jesus knew when Satan tried to seduce him.   The Lord’s Prayer has taught me to request God to keep me away from temptations.   Jesus also taught his followers to struggle against the devil.   In particular, he taught the believers to shun the devil with their authority – the authority of the Spirit of the Lord.   Thus, I do not wish to fear the devil.   Birgivi writes that we must fear the influence of the devil’s suggestions.   But, I am not convinced by the idea of fearing the devil, seeing that Jesus Christ gave me power over the devil.   I would simply trust in warding off evil thoughts and keeping away from evildoing. Moreover, I would not like to focus on the kinds of doubts that Birgivi asks me to shun.   From everything that I have learned about Jesus Christ, I know that he had the clearest focus and clearest mind.   I would like to develop such a clear focus and mind, instead of thinking about the differences between good and evil suggestions.   I believe that these debates within the self would not allow me to live the life of freedom that the Spirit of the Lord has guided me to live.   Lastly, I am confident that my trust in the Lord should be strong enough to keep me away from evil as it is.   I do not need to learn about the difference between good and evil when the Spirit of the Lord within me is all good and without a trace of evil. References Birgivi, Imam. The Path of Muhammad: A Book on Islamic Morals and Ethics & The Last Will and Testament.         

History of Law essays

History of Law essays Over the many years of mans existence, he has constantly evolved to better fit and survive in his surroundings. There are many aspects to his evolution that can be seen through his actions, his thoughts and his beliefs, to name a few. The Merriam-Webster dictionary defines anthropology as the science of human beings. The focus on this paper will be the anthropological aspect dealing with the nature of human beings. The nature of human beings can be seen in many aspects of his being. One of these aspects is his laws and courts. The legal system directly reflects the way that man thinks, as the guilty are viewed as being wrong, while the innocent are viewed as being right. There are blatant representations of societys evolution in the law courts, and at the same time there are subtle indications as well. All this and more show how the legal system indicates the direction that man has traveled in his evolution. Every society has a set of rules and regulations, or laws that govern a society and control the behavior of its members . A society without laws dealing with crimes there is anarchy and war. The law courts avoid this state of society by resolving arising disputes in a civilized manner. Governments are kept in check by laws that limit the amount of power that any governing body has, and therefore instills freedom in the societys citizens. Laws can improve the quality of life of the people by increasing the effort put into the health, education and welfare of the people. Laws hold different levels of importance and therefore have different implications according to each society. A law that is found in China will have a different role than one that is found in Western nations1. In China the use of a law is the last resort, as all other means of resolution are employed before the courts. As society evolves, so does law. In earlier times, if someone was to commit murder, then the victims family would be per...

Julia Morgan, About the Architect of Hearst Castle

Julia Morgan, About the Architect of Hearst Castle Best known for the lavish Hearst Castle, Julia Morgan also designed public venues for the YWCA as well as hundreds of homes in California. Morgan helped rebuild San Francisco after the earthquake and fires of 1906- except for the bell tower at Mills College, which she had already designed to survive the damage. And it still stands. Background: Born: January 20, 1872 in San Francisco, California Died: February 2, 1957, at age 85. Buried at Mountain View Cemetery in Oakland, California Education: 1890: Graduated from Oakland High School, California1894: Earned a degree in civil engineering from the University of California, BerkeleyWhile at Berkeley, mentored by architect Bernard MaybeckTwice rejected by the Ecole des Beaux-Arts in ParisEntered and won several important architecture competitions in Europe1896: Accepted by the Ecole des Beaux-Arts in Paris and became the first woman to graduate from that school with a degree in architecture Career Highlights and Challenges: 1902-1903: Worked for John Galen Howard, University Architect in Berkeley1904: Established her own practice in San Francisco1906: Office destroyed in a fire caused by the 1906 earthquake; Morgan established a new office1919: Newspaper tycoon William Randolph Hearst hired Morgan to design his San Simeon estate, Hearst Castle1920s: Problems with her inner ear required surgery that distorted Morgans face and affected her balance1923: Fires in Berkeley destroyed many homes designed by Morgan1951: Morgan closed her office and died six years later2014: Posthumously awarded the highest honor of the American Institute of Architects and elevated to the College of Fellows (FAIA). Morgan was the first woman to be given the AIA Gold Medal. Selected Buildings by Julia Morgan: 1904: Campanile (bell tower), Mills College, Oakland, California1913: Asilomar, Pacific Grove, CA1917: Livermore House, San Francisco, CA1922: The Hacienda, William Randolph Hearsts home at Valley of the Oaks, CA1922-1939: San Simeon (Hearst Castle), San Simeon, CA1924-1943: Wyntoon, Mount Shasta, CA1927: Laniakea YWCA, Honolulu, HI1929: The Berkeley City Club, Berkeley, CA About Julia Morgan: Julia Morgan was one of Americas most important and prolific architects. Morgan was the first woman to study architecture at the prestigious Ecole des Beaux-Arts in Paris and the first woman to work as a professional architect in California. During her 45-year career, she designed more than 700 homes, churches, office buildings, hospitals, stores, and educational buildings. Like her mentor, Bernard Maybeck, Julia Morgan was an eclectic architect who worked in a variety of styles. She was known for her painstaking craftsmanship and for designing interiors that incorporated the owners collections of art and antiques. Many of Julia Morgans buildings featured Arts and Crafts elements such as: exposed support beamshorizontal lines that blend into the landscapeextensive use of wooden shinglesearth coloringsCalifornia redwood and other natural materials After the California earthquake and fires of 1906, Julia Morgan obtained commissions to rebuild Fairmont Hotel, St. Johns Presbyterian Church, and many other important buildings in and around San Francisco. Of the hundreds of homes that Julia Morgan designed, she is perhaps most famous for Hearst Castle in San Simeon, California. For nearly 28 years, craftsmen labored to create William Randolph Hearsts magnificent estate. The estate has 165 rooms, 127 acres of gardens, beautiful terraces, indoor and outdoor pools, and an exclusive private zoo. Hearst Castle is one of the largest and most elaborate homes in the United States. Learn More: Julia Morgan Papers, MS 010 at the Robert F. Kennedy Library, Cal Poly, San Luis Obispo. CAJulia Morgan: Architect of Beauty by Mark Wilson, 2007Julia Morgan Built a Castle Hardcover by Celeste Mannis, 2006Women of Steel and Stone: 22 Inspirational Architects, Engineers, and Landscape Designers by Anna M. Lewis, 2014

Unit 3 Discussion Big Ideas in Science Research Paper

Unit 3 Discussion Big Ideas in Science - Research Paper Example So the sooner one reveals a theory the more time it gives to the world to explore it. 2. Skepticism can be faced by presenting facts and reasoning understood by the scientist. It would be ideal to detail the process of the whole theory the idea behind it and the reason why it occurred. Any theory needs to have a solid scientific reasoning to be approved. According to (Oskin,2013) â€Å"Wegeners theory of continental drift was soundly denounced by geologists. Part of the opposition was because Wegener didnt have a good model to explain how the continents moved back and forth†.It is necessary for the theorist to prove that the previous theory was wrong and reason for it. The scientific detailing of a theory can avoid the scientist being labeled a crack pot. 3. The best way to explain the continental drift is by analyzing the plate tectonics with GPS. GPS is Global Positioning System which works with the help of satellite devices. According to (Garmin ,1996) â€Å"The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based navigation system made up of a network of 24 satellites placed into orbit by the U.S. Department of Defense†. It shows that the earth’s plates are floating on the surface and it makes it clear that they are moving all the time. Event the devices that project 3D image of seismic activity is important for supporting Wegner’s theory. One of the evidence which can be shows is the presence of Negroid races in many parts of continents. It can be seen that there is Negroid races in India and other Asian countries and even the topography and vegetation is somewhat similar. The wild life and aquatic animals remain somewhat similar and this can be because the animals shared a common ancestor and had few changes due to evolution. The evidence can be collected by visiting some parts of continents and showcasing its inhabitants and geographical nature. Patrick is quiet right that Wegner has not revealed the theory too soon